Composition of Cow’s Milk: Nature's Complete Nutrient Package

Cow’s milk is a remarkable fluid, consisting predominantly of water at approximately 87%, with the remaining 13% encompassing vital milk solids. These milk solids comprise two major components: butterfat and solids not fat (SNF), collectively contributing to the milk's nutrient richness and versatility.

The fat portion, also known as butterfat, constitutes about 3.7% of cow’s milk. This fat content can slightly vary depending on the breed, with Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, and Jersey cows generally yielding milk with slightly higher fat content compared to Holstein cows. Despite these variations, Holstein cows, renowned for their high milk production, remain a dominant source of milk globally.

The SNF portion, accounting for 8.9% of the milk, is where the essence of milk's nutritional value lies. SNF can be further categorized into lactose (milk sugar), essential minerals (such as calcium, potassium, and phosphorus), and proteins (including casein and whey proteins).

The protein content in milk, constituting approximately 3.3% of its composition, primarily consists of casein and whey proteins. Casein, representing 77% of the total protein content, is unique for its role in forming micelles—complex structures essential for transporting calcium and phosphate. Meanwhile, whey proteins complement the nutritional profile with their high-quality amino acids, crucial for growth and tissue maintenance.

Furthermore, cow’s milk is revered as a nutrient-dense food due to its balanced composition of essential nutrients relative to its caloric content. It stands out as the quintessential complete food, even containing trace amounts of essential vitamins and minerals vital for human health.

However, the suitability of milk can vary across species due to differences in lactose composition. Some young mammals might face lactose intolerance issues when exposed to milk from different species.

In summary, cow’s milk is a nutritional powerhouse, providing an array of vital nutrients essential for growth and development. Its varied composition, influenced by breed and species, underscores its significance in global agriculture and nutrition. Whether it’s for sustenance in infancy or as a staple in adulthood, cow’s milk remains unparalleled as a source of nourishment, offering a comprehensive blend of nature's finest nutrients.
Composition of Cow’s Milk: Nature's Complete Nutrient Package

Chemical composition in liquid smoke

Liquid smokes have been used extensively in food systems to impart flavor characteristics that are similar to smoked food products. It is a product obtained from condensation of vapor produced during pyrolysis which contains oxidized organic compounds, such as ketone, aldehyde, phenol, and carboxylic acid.

Pyrolysis is a thermo-chemical process that converts the solid biomass into a liquid (biooil/liquid smoke), gas, and solid.

Liquid smokes are usually obtained from the condensation of wood smoke produced by smoldering wood chips or sawdust under limited oxygen. Those raw materials consist of enough cellulose and lignin contents.

The diversity of raw materials and liquid smoke production method result in complex chemical component with various structure, reactivity and sensory activity.

The various phenolic compounds present in liquid smoke lowers the pH and destroys the walls of bacterial cells.

Study found the major proportion of commercial full-strength liquid smoke to be composed of water (11–92%), tar (1–17%), acids (2.8–9.5%), carbonyl containing compounds (2.6–4.6%) and phenol derivatives (0.2–2.9%). However, in the manufacturing of liquid smokes, a variety of ingredients may be used, such as salts, fatty acids, fatty esters and carriers like saccharides.

Partial pyrolysis of lignin produces various types of phenolic compounds. Phenols are obtained from lignin pyrolysis. The quantity and quality of phenol compound that can be found on liquid smoke is related with lignin-content and pyrolysis temperature.

Phenolic compounds have antibacterial properties and can also act as antioxidants by stabilizing free radicals. Liquid smoke provides a specific aroma and better color quality to smoked products.

Carbonyl-containing compounds impart sweet or burnt-sweet aroma and tend to soften the heavy smoky aroma associated with phenolic compounds with some “typical smoke-cured” aroma and flavors. The compound inhibits the growth of bacteria by interfere the use of nutrient of the bacteria in smoked product.

Furthermore, carbonyl-containing compounds are involved in textural changes in smoked food caused by interaction with proteins, and contribute the golden-brown color of smoked products due to reaction with amino acids, and the formation of Maillard reaction products.

Organic acids which have important role in liquid smoke is acetic acid. It can inhibit bacterial growth by penetrating into the cell wall of bacteria and disrupt the normal physiological function of the cells.
Chemical composition in liquid smoke

Oil content in coconut

Coconuts, form the Cocas nucifera lam, are dehusked before cracking the nut to drain away the coconut water.  Coconut palm is productively gown within 20° north and south of the equator, especially along coastal areas.

Traditionally, coconut oil is extracted from copra by crushing in an expeller, followed by solvent extraction to recover the residual oil from the cake.

The oil content ranges from 34 to 45 % in the ripe endosperm of coconut and from 60 to 77 per cent in well dried copra.

The oil content is influenced by the water content in the nut, stage of maturity and the type of coconut variety.

The oil contains predominantly triglycerides with 86.5% saturated fatty acids. This makes the crude oil very stable against oxidation. They consist of C12, C14 and C16 with C12 predominating.

Others are 5.8% monounsaturated fatty acids, and 1.8% polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Of the saturated fatty acids, coconut oil is primarily 44.6% lauric acid, 16.8% myristic acid and 8.2% palmitic acid, although it contains seven different saturated fatty acids in total. Its only monounsaturated fatty acid is oleic acid while its only polyunsaturated fatty acid is linoleic acid.

Coconut oil is composed of a special group of fat molecules known as medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) which contains 8 to 12 carbon chains.  The sum of MFCA in coconut oil is 62%, which makes the oil the richest source of MCFA among vegetable oil.

Medium –chain fatty acids in coconut oil are broken down and used predominantly for energy production and thus seldom end up as body fat or as deposit in arteries or anywhere else.
Oil content in coconut 

Composition of saliva

Saliva is a complex fluid produced by a number of specialized glands which discharge into the oral cavity. It is composed of water 99% and solid 1% which include a complex mixture of inorganic and organic substances.

Organic substance such as L-amylase (ptyalin), lingual lipase, kallikrein, lysozymes, small amounts of urea, uric acid, cholesterol, and mucin. While inorganic substances are Na, Cl, K and HCO3.

It is estimated that over 200 different proteins and peptides are contained in human saliva.

The two major proteins present in saliva are alpha-amylase and mucin. Salivary –amylase (ptyalin) is produced predominantly by the parotid glands, and mucin is produced mainly by the sublingual and submandibular salivary gland.

Many substances in blood serum are found in saliva. The salivary concentration of some of these is proportional to the serum concentration.

The major characteristics of saliva are:
*Its large volume relative to the mass of the salivary glands
*Its high potassium concentration
*Its low osmolarity
*The specialized organic materials it contains

Salivary secretion is stimulated by smell and taste. The regulatory centers are in pons in brain.
Composition of saliva

Properties of beef fat

Considerable variation occurs in the fatty acid composition of animal fat triglycerides. The variation is fatty acid composition for similar animal species is a function of diet, location of fat recovery from animal carcass and environment. It is also affected by the kind and breed of animal and by the feed.

Edible beef fat is obtained from bovine adipose tissue covering the abdominal cavity and surrounding the kidney and heart and from other compact, undamaged tissue.

The beef fat is light yellow due to carotenoids derived from animal feed. It is of a friable, brittle consistency and melts between 45 and 50°C.

The majorities of the fatty acid chains are 14 to 18 carbons in length and are both saturated and unsaturated.

Live animal fat tissue contains virtually no free fatty acid. Upon slaughter, enzyme action is activated which results in rapid hydrolysis of the animal fat. Most of the wide range in total fat composition of beef carcasses is caused by trimmable fat and much of it is removed in preparing retail cuts.

The beef fat when heated yields two fractions: oleomargarine (liquid) and oleostearine (solid). Oleomargarine is a soft fat with a consistency similar to that of melted butter.
Properties of beef fat

Polyphenols in tea

Tea is the most widely consumed beverage in the world after water. The daily consumption is around 3 billion cups per day.

Regular intake of tea is associated with improved antioxidant status in vivo, which may contribute to lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and certain type of cancers.

The polyphenols in tea mainly include the following six groups of compounds: flavonols, hydroxy-4-flavonols, anthocyanins, flavones, flavonols, and phenolic acids.

Among these, the flavonols mainly catechins are most important and occupy 60-80% of the total amount of polyphenols in tea.

The tea plant is known to contain seven kinds of major catechins and traces of various other catechin derivatives.

These catechins are present in all part of the tea plant; 15-30% are present in the tea shoots, and there is also a high content in the second and third leaves.

About 90-95% of the flavonols undergo enzymatic oxidation to products which are closely responsible for the characteristics color of tea infusion and its taste.

During the manufacturing of tea, the content of polyphenols increases slightly at the beginning of withering but decreases right after.

Although the trend for the changes of polyphenols appears similar in different varieties the absolute content of polyphenols are different among them.
Polyphenols in tea

Analysis of moisture contents of food

Moisture determination is one of the most important and most widely used measurements in the processing and testing of foods. It is an important factor in food quality preservation and resistance to deterioration.

The amount of moisture in food products is a measure of yield and quantity and as such is of economic importance.

Moisture content must be known for optimum processing of foods, for example, in the milling of cereals, mixing of dough to optimum consistency, and production of bread with the best grain.

Moisture removal or dehydration has long been used as a technique for improving food storage stability. Small increases in the moisture content of low and intermediate moisture foods can significantly reduce their shelf life.

Determination of moisture content is necessary to calculate the content of other food constituents on uniform basis. The dry matter that remains after moisture analysis is commonly referred to as total solids.

Of the oven methods, microwave drying, infrared drying and the moisture analyzer technique are fastest. 

Some force draft oven procedures require less than 1 hour drying, but most forced draft oven and vacuum oven procedures a much longer time.

Hygroscopic foods with low moisture contents may require the use of more sophisticated techniques, such as the Karl-Fischer procedure.

Oven drying procedures are official methods for a variety of food products. Reflux distillation is an AOAC method for chocolate, dried vegetables, dried milk and oils and fats.
Analysis of moisture contents of food

Fat content in cereal grains

Lipids present in cereals are complex as they consist of a large number of chemical classes and individuals compounds.

The distribution of the classes and compounds varies with not only cereal species but also structural parts. 

Lipids –fats and oil makes up approximately 1-7% of a kernel, depending on the grain.

Wheat, rice, corn, rye and barley contain 1-2% lipids. Oats contain higher content of lipids: 4-7%, one-third of which are polar (phospholipids and galactolipids). Most lipids are concentrated in germ and aleurone. 

Maize lipids are predominantly acyltriglycerides in cultivars having a high total lipid content.

The main components of lipid is 72-85% unsaturated fatty acids, primarily, oleic acid, and linolenic acid. 

Phospholipids and glycolipids are also significantly present. Minor components include free fatty acids, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and phytosterol.
Fat content in cereal grains

Chemical composition of papaya

Analysis of the fruit gave moisture 89.6 %, proteins 0.5%, carbohydrate 9.5%m, ether extract 0.1%, mineral matter 0.4%, calcium 0.01%, phosphorus 0.01%, and iron 0.4 mg/100 gm.

The high content of water in the papaya almost as a melon (92%), This is why some call it the ‘tropical melon’.

The chemical composition of papaya fruit with respect to sugars, organic, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals change during ripening.

Most of its carbohydrates are formed from sugars: saccharose, glucose and fructose.

The fresh fruit pulp contains sucrose, invert sugar, a resinous substance, papain, malic acid and salts of tartaric and citric acids 1.2 per cent.

The dry matter which was 7% at 15 days after pollination, increased to 13% at harvest.

Both ripe and unripe papaya fruit is a rich source of pectins.

Papaya is a source of calcium, and an excellent source of vitamin A and C. The B vitamins are also present in small amounts.

Papaya’s fruit and seed have been shown to possess bactericidal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Shigella flexneri.

Chemical composition of papaya

Honey

Honey is produced from the nectar in flowers gathered by bees to feed young bees. Honey also used as energy source for their workers.

The nectar is greatly concentrated and stored in wax cells, thousands of which form the honeycomb. In natural honeybee colony, honey serves as food for the bees though the winter when plants are dormant.

Its inauspicious beginning not with standing, honey has been a highly valued human commodity for millennia.

It has been long recognized as one of the finest of nature’s energy foods.

Honey may be one of the most effective ways to consume carbs before exercise. The lower glycemic index profile of honey is an important consideration for athletes.

Most of the water in the nectar evaporates, resulting in honey, which is thirty five to forty percent fructose, thirty to thirty five percent dextrose, seventeen to twenty percent water and small amounts of enzymes, etc.
Honey

Chemical Composition of Cereals

Chemical Composition of Cereals
The chemical composition of the cereals varies widely and depends on the environmental conditions, soil, variety and fertilizer.

Wheat has a higher protein content than other cereals: The protein content varies from 7 to 22% depending on the variety. However, because of low availability of some essential amino acids in wheat, its biological value requires addition or supplementation with other amino acids.

Several research efforts have focused in producing different wheat varieties with higher protein and essential fatty acids content.

Carbohydrates are the major chemical composition of the corn. However, the maize corn kernel is more than a rich source of carbohydrate, it is a source of enzymes for the study of biosynthesis and genetic markers for genetic, biochemical, and genetic engineering studies.

The starch granule is formed inside an amyloplast and arranged in an insoluble granule. Starch is the major carbohydrate in the kernel and comprises close to 72% of its dry weight.

Starch also is found in the embryo, bran, and tip cap. Amylose makes up 25-30% of the starch whereas amylopectin composes 70-75% of the starch.

Monosaccharides , such as fructose and glucose are found in equal proportions in the endosperm. Among the disaccharides sucrose is the major sugar in kernels that comprise only 4-8% of kernel dry weight: maltose is also found at less than 0.4% of the kernel dry weight.

The corn bran consists of 70% hemicellulose, 23% cellulose and 0.1% lignin on a dry weight basis.
The protein content of the corn shows that it is poor in essential amino acids such as tryptophan, lysine and threonine, valine and sulfur amino acids.

The corn has only 4.4% oil (dry basis), but the amount of corn oil production is enormous, even though it is not considered as an oil seeds crop.

Triglycerides are the major composition (98.8%) of the refined commercial corn oil.

Corn oil is very stable compared with other seed oils owing to its flow level of linolenic acid and the presence of natural antioxidant.

The composition of rice and its fraction depends on the cultivars, environmental conditions and processing. The rice components distributes differently in aleurone, embryo and other parts of the grain.

The average brown rice protein content ranges from 4.3 to 18.3% with a mean value of 9.2%.

Protein is the second most important rice component after carbohydrates.

The ouster tissue of the rice grain are rich in water soluble proteins (albumin) and also salt soluble proteins (globulin), but the endosperm is rich in glutelin.

The milling fraction of the rice grain has a limited prolamin (alcohol free proteins), and the non-protein nitrogen (NPN) of the rice is about 2 -4%.

Rice starch is composed of linear fraction - amylose and branched fraction -amylopectin – that is a major factor in the eating and cooking quality of the rice.
Chemical Composition of Cereals

Milk in General

Milk in General
Milk is the first food of young mammal produced by the mammary glands of female mammals.

It is the mixture of fat and high quality protein in water and contains some carbohydrate (lactose), vitamins, and minerals.

Milk and milk products may be obtained from different species such as goats and sheep.

While fluid milk contains a very large percentage of water, it may concentrated to form evaporated milk and cheese, yogurt or in soups and sauces.

By law, milk and milk product must contain a designated percent of total milk solids (all of the component of milk except water) and also the milk solids, not fat (all of the components of milk solids not include fat).

The butterfat component of milk is the most expensive component of milk and its level determines if milk offered for retail sale as whole milk or at some lesser percentage of fat such as 2% milk, ½% or fat free.

Milk may be cultured, dried, fortified, homogenized or pasteurized and used to create products with different taste texture nutritive, value, and shelf life.

It may be processed into products such as buttermilk, cheese, cream, ice milk, ice cream, sour cream and yogurt with different levels of fat content.

Dried milk is added to a multitude of foods. It may be added to foods to increase the protein or calcium value.

High temperatures may curdle milk: therefore care must be taken in the preparations of foods with milk. Milk requires safe handling and old storage.

Milk is not well tolerated by a large portion of the population. The milk sugar, lactose, is not digested by persons lacking the enzyme lactase.
Milk in General

Composition of Cereal Grains

Composition of Cereal Grains
In composition, grains are structurally similar as seen; however, they vary in their nutrient composition, containing varying amounts of carbohydrate, fat, protein, water, vitamins and minerals.

The main nutrient component of cereal grains is carbohydrate which makes up 79-83% of the dry matter of grain.

It exists predominantly as starch, with fiber especially cellulose and hemicellulose, composing approximately 6% of the grain.

Lipid (fats and oil) makes up approximately 1-7% of a kernel, depending on the grain. For example, wheat rice, corn, rye and barley contain 1-2% lipid, oats contain 4-7%. The lipid is 72-85% unsaturated fatty acids, primarily, oleic acid and linoleic acid.

Protein composes 7-14% of the grain, depending on the grain. Cereals are low in the amino acids tryptophan and methionine, and although potential breeding may produce cereals higher in the amino acid lysine, it remains the limiting amino acid in cereals.

Grain consumption provides half of the protein consumed worldwide. However, in comparison to foods such as milk, meats or eggs, grains do not include all the essential amino acid contained in animal protein.

The protein is of low biological value and therefore, less efficient in supporting body needs.

Combining food sources of protein is common in cultures throughout the world.

The preparation of traditional dishes combines the lower biological value grains with legumes or nuts and seeds to provide the needed amino acids to yield a complete dietary protein.

For example a combination of beans with rice, or beans with cornbread, tofu and vegetables, or tofu and cashews, chickpeas and sesame seed paste (tahini) known as hummus, peanut butter on whole wheat bread and so forth are combinations creating complete proteins.

Vitamins present in cereals are predominantly the B vitamins-thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2) and niacin (B3). These vitamins may be lost in the milling process and so are added back through the process of enrichment.

Whole grain products contain some fat soluble vitamins in the germ.

Water is present in cereal grains at levels of 10-14% of the grain. Of course soaking and cooking add water to cereal grains, and the grain size expands as additional water is absorbed.

If flour is high in protein content, it absorbs a lot of water compared to low protein flour.

Mineral are naturally present at higher levels in whole grains than in refined grains. Fortification of refined flour with added iron is common.

Zinc, calcium as well as vitamins also may be added at levels beyond not present in the original grain.

Fiber content is determined by different analysis and includes crude fiber (CF) and total dietary fiber (TDF).

These two measurements are not correlated. Crude fiber is composed of cellulose and the non-carbohydrate lignin. TDF includes cellulose and lignin, plus hemicellulose, pectic substances, gums and mucilages.
Composition of Cereal Grains

Food Proteins

Protein constitutes 10-15 per cent of the energy in almost all human diets. It is also important in the structure of all cells in the body, as well as forming enzymes, molecules that transport substances in the blood and some hormones.

The problem of providing adequate protein for an expanding world population is a second only to the overall food problem.

Apart from their nutritional significance, proteins play a large part in the organoleptic properties of foods.

Proteins exert the controlling effect on a texture of foods from animal sources.

Foods in meat, poultry, dry peas and beans, eggs, ad nuts group and in the milk, yoghurt and cheese group contribute an abundance of high quality protein.

Two others, the vegetable group and the grains group, contribute smaller amounts of protein, but they can add up to significant quantities.

Protein content of wheat and flour is considered one of the best single indices of bread making quality.

Protein often occurs in foods in physical or chemical combinations with carbohydrates and lipids.

The glycol proteins and lipoproteins affect the rheological properties of food solution or have technical applications as edible emulsifiers.

During the heating (boiling, baking or roasting) the amino acid side chains are degraded or interact with other food component (e.g. lysine with reducing sugar) to give typical flavor.

Excessive heating may, on the other hand, reduce nutritive value.

The protein quality of the diet determines, in large part, how well children grow and how well adults maintain their health.

High quality protein provide enough of all the essential amino acids needed to support the body’s work, and low quality proteins do not.

Two factors influence protein quality – the protein’s digestibility and its amino acid composition.
Food Proteins