Arachidonic Acid: Role, Dietary Sources, and Health Implications

Arachidonic acid (AA) is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid integral to the body's inflammatory and immune responses. As a key component of cell membranes, AA serves as a precursor for bioactive molecules such as prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes, which regulate inflammation, blood clotting, and other physiological processes.

Dietary sources of AA are predominantly animal-based. Meat, poultry, fish, and seafood are rich in AA, with organ meats like liver and kidneys containing particularly high levels. Eggs and dairy products also provide moderate amounts of AA. In contrast, plant-based foods generally have low levels of AA; however, some nuts and seeds, such as peanuts and sunflower seeds, contain small amounts.

Maintaining an appropriate balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids is crucial for health. While AA-derived eicosanoids promote inflammation, those derived from omega-3 fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), tend to be less inflammatory or even anti-inflammatory. Therefore, a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids can help modulate the inflammatory effects of AA.

Recent discussions have raised concerns about the high omega-6 content in seed oils and their potential link to inflammation. However, current research indicates that seed oils are not inherently harmful and can be part of a balanced diet. The key is to maintain a proper balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids to support overall health.

In summary, arachidonic acid is essential for the body's inflammatory and immune responses, with dietary sources primarily from animal-based foods. Balancing the intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids is crucial to modulate inflammation and maintain overall health.
Arachidonic Acid: Role, Dietary Sources, and Health Implications

The Importance of Linoleic Acid and Its Dietary Sources

Linoleic acid, an essential omega-6 fatty acid, plays a pivotal role in human health. As a fundamental component of cell membranes, it supports their structural integrity and fluidity. Beyond this, linoleic acid influences various physiological processes, including inflammation regulation, immune function, and skin health. Its essentiality lies in the fact that the human body cannot synthesize it, necessitating dietary intake.

Key Food Sources

1. Vegetable Oils

Vegetable oils stand out as the richest dietary sources of linoleic acid. Sunflower, safflower, corn, and soybean oils are particularly abundant in this fatty acid. Their widespread use in cooking, baking, and processed foods makes them a convenient source. Modern formulations of fortified or organic oils ensure additional health benefits while retaining high linoleic acid content.

2. Nuts and Seeds

Nuts and seeds are nutrient-dense sources of linoleic acid. Walnuts, flaxseeds, and chia seeds not only provide healthy fats but also contribute dietary fiber, antioxidants, and essential micronutrients. These versatile ingredients can be incorporated into meals as toppings for oatmeal, yogurt, or salads, or as ingredients in smoothies and baked goods.

3. Poultry and Animal Products

Poultry, particularly chicken and turkey, is another significant source, primarily due to its fat content. Lean cuts paired with healthful cooking methods can enhance dietary intake of linoleic acid without excessive calorie consumption. Certain dairy products, including cheese, butter, and cream, also contribute modest amounts, offering variety in food choices.

Emerging Perspectives

Recent research underscores the importance of balancing omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids for optimal health. While linoleic acid supports inflammation when needed, excessive intake relative to omega-3s may contribute to chronic inflammation. Experts recommend consuming whole-food sources over processed options and combining them with omega-3-rich foods like fish, flaxseed oil, or chia seeds to maintain this balance.

Conclusion

Linoleic acid is indispensable for overall health, supporting vital functions such as cellular structure, immune defense, and inflammatory responses. By incorporating a mix of vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, poultry, and dairy into your diet, you can achieve adequate intake while promoting a balanced omega fatty acid profile for long-term well-being.
The Importance of Linoleic Acid and Its Dietary Sources

Phosphorus: Essential Nutrient for Bone Health and Metabolism

Phosphorus is a vital mineral for the human body, playing a crucial role in the development and maintenance of bones and teeth. It is also integral to essential body lipids, contributing to the structural integrity of cell membranes. Beyond these roles, phosphorus is a key component of the major buffer systems in the body, helping maintain pH balance. It is part of DNA and RNA, making it essential for all cellular growth and function.

For optimal health, the intake of phosphorus should be balanced with calcium in a 1:1 ratio. This balance is crucial for bone health and metabolic functions. Rich dietary sources of phosphorus include meats, fish, eggs, and nuts. Phosphorus from animal sources is more readily absorbed by the body compared to that from plant sources. In the typical US diet, milk and cheese alone provide about one-fourth of the daily phosphorus intake.

Phosphorus is also prevalent in many processed foods as an additive or preservative, known as inorganic phosphorus. This type is found in fast foods, ready-to-eat foods, canned and bottled drinks, enhanced meats, and most processed foods. While convenient, the high levels of inorganic phosphorus in these foods can contribute to health issues if consumed excessively, highlighting the importance of balanced, natural sources of this essential nutrient.
Phosphorus: Essential Nutrient for Bone Health and Metabolism

Unveiling the Vitality of Biotin

Biotin, a pivotal water-soluble member of the B complex vitamin group, orchestrates numerous biochemical processes essential for human health. Primarily, it serves as a coenzyme indispensable in the synthesis of aspartic acid, a critical player in various metabolic pathways including the deaminase system and carbon dioxide fixation.

Despite its significance, biotin's presence in plasma is modest compared to other water-soluble vitamins. Predominantly existing in a free form, it seamlessly integrates into the aqueous phase of plasma, facilitating its vital functions throughout the body.

Deficiency of biotin is uncommon but can manifest under specific circumstances. Consumption of raw egg white, rich in avidin, poses a risk as it binds with biotin, rendering it unavailable for metabolic processes. Furthermore, prolonged usage of certain anticonvulsant drugs may accelerate biotin breakdown, predisposing individuals to deficiency. Infants born with biotinidase deficiency face a genetic anomaly leading to biotin depletion, underlining the necessity of this vitamin from early stages of life.

The repercussions of biotin deficiency are profound, ranging from scaling skin and lesions to nerve fiber degeneration, impeding normal growth and development. Yet, owing to microbial flora in the intestine, there's ambiguity regarding the precise dietary requirement for biotin.

While biotin is ubiquitously present in foods and feedstuffs, its concentrations vary significantly. Liver emerges as a stellar source, with peanuts, peas, beans, and whole cooked eggs also offering substantial amounts. Conversely, fruits and meats typically exhibit lower biotin content, emphasizing the importance of a varied diet for optimal biotin intake.

In conclusion, biotin's multifaceted role in human physiology underscores its indispensability for overall well-being. By understanding its sources and consequences of deficiency, we can ensure adequate intake, thereby safeguarding against potential health implications.
Unveiling the Vitality of Biotin

Manganese Benefits and Sources

Manganese is a naturally occurring element found in small amounts within the human body, primarily concentrated in the bones, liver, kidneys, and pancreas. It plays a crucial role in various physiological functions, aiding in the development of connective tissue, bones, blood clotting factors, and sex hormones. Additionally, manganese contributes significantly to fat and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as the absorption of calcium and the regulation of blood sugar levels, all of which are essential for maintaining normal brain and nerve function.

When combined with calcium, zinc, and copper, manganese supports bone mineral density, making it particularly beneficial for older adults. Enzymes within the human body expedite chemical reactions, and manganese is a vital component of numerous enzymes responsible for processing carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol.

Manganese is also a key constituent of the antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD), which aids in combating free radicals. These naturally occurring molecules have the potential to cause damage to cell membranes and DNA, contributing to conditions such as aging, heart disease, and certain types of cancers.

Moreover, manganese is present in an enzyme that supplies the amino acid proline, necessary for synthesizing collagen in skin cells, a crucial factor in wound healing. Furthermore, manganese collaborates with various other enzymes that promote bone and cartilage growth, facilitate insulin production for blood sugar regulation, and support blood clotting.

Manganese is considered an essential nutrient and is predominantly found in seeds and whole grains, with smaller quantities present in legumes, beans, nuts, leafy green vegetables, and tea.
Manganese Benefits and Sources

Palmitoleic acid

The two most common omega-7 fatty acids in nature are palmitoleic acid and vaccenic acid.

Palmitoleic acid is a minor monounsaturated fatty acid in the human diet and in blood plasma. Palmitoleic acid is not commonly found in food but is a product of palmitic acid metabolism in the body. Palmitoleic acid has the formula  CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)7COOH.

Palmitoleic acid comes in two forms: a cis isomer when a source like macadamia nuts are consumed or produced endogenously in the body, and a trans isomer that is naturally present in full fat dairy products and meat fat.

Dietary sources that naturally contain palmitoleic acid include certain blue-green algae, macadamia nuts (3.7g/oz; 17% of fat content), and sea buckthorn oil extracted from the seed or berries of the plant.

Omega-7 is quoted to be high in palmitoleic acid which is effective against a range of life-threatening disorders – including cancer. Omega-7, in its natural source (i.e., macadamia nuts and sea buckthorn), is quoted to be a double-edged sword as it also contains high levels of palmitic acid.

Palmitoleic acid is an important fatty acid for pharmaceutical applications. It is postulated to have anti-thrombotic effects, which can help prevent stroke.
Palmitoleic acid

The importance of phytosterols

Phytosterols (i.e., plant sterols) are important constituents of plant cells. These compounds are derived from squalene, belonging to the triterpenes family. They are structurally similar to cholesterol, except for the presence of a methyl or ethyl group at the C-24 carbon atom of their side chain.

Phytosterols are important micronutrients structurally similar and functionally analogous to cholesterols. Up to now, more than 250 compounds have been identified. Among the most commonly found phytosterols are β-sitosterol (C-29), campesterol (C-28), and stigmasterol (C-29), which contribute up to 98% of the phytosterol dietary intake in the human diet.

It possesses proven antidiabetic activity. Phytosterols can act as ligands for PPARs (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor), reduce visceral fat accumulation, and reduce the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin, serum glucose, nitric oxide, and substances that react with thiobarbituric acid, and they can increase serum insulin and pancreatic antioxidants.

The importance of phytosterols is due to their action of reducing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, and a daily consumption of 2–3 g of phytosterols could decrease the LDL-cholesterol by 10–15%.

Studies have proved the evidence that the phytosterols have a role in protecting against the development of various cancers: ovarian, breast, stomach, prostate and lung cancer. This has been attributed to the effect of phytosterols on membrane structure and function of tumor and host tissue, stopping the growth and spread of cancer cells and encouraging apoptosis.

Vegetable oil, seeds, nuts, and vegetables in general are the major dietary sources of phytosterols. Plant sterols are present in foods in different forms (free, esterified to fatty acids, and linked to glycosides or phenolic acids), and its total content is generally calculated by the sum of all forms.

Banana fruit has been shown to contain a good amount of phytosterols both in the peel and pulp. The phytosterols content in unripe banana in the range of 2.8 to 12.4 g·kg DW has been reported.

Phytosterols isolated from banana flowers (e.g., β-sitosterol and 31-norcyclolaudenone) inhibit amylase as an uncompetitive inhibitor, with a km value of 5.51 μg/mL.
The importance of phytosterols

Starches: Major polysaccharide in plants

Chemically is composed of two glucan polymers, amylose, and amylopectin. These polymers are deposited in granules of different sizes, large A-, medium B- and small C-type, and shapes, as disk-like and spherical.

It provides humans with energy (4 cal per gram) and is hydrolyzed to glucose, supplying the glucose that is necessary for brain and central nervous system functioning.

Nutritionists agree that carbohydrates should be an important part of human diet. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommends that the intake of total carbohydrates, including carbohydrates from starchy foods (generally in the form of tubers or root vegetables) should range from 45-60% of the total energy intake for both adults and children.

Amylose influences the packing of amylopectin into crystallites and the organization of the crystalline lamella within starch granules. This is important for properties related to water uptake as swelling and gelatinization.

Starch is used in the food industry either as food products or additives for thickening, preservation and quality enhancer in baked foods, confectioneries, pastas, soups and sauces, and mayonnaises.

Starch can be used as a food additive to control the uniformity, stability and texture of soups and sauces, to resist the gel breakdown during processing and to raise the shelf life of products.

Starch sources are numerous, with common ones derived from cereal grains such as wheat, corn, or rice. Wheat yields a cloudy, thick mixture, while cornstarch produces more clear mixtures such as gravies or sauces. Vegetables, roots and tubers, including the root of cassava, and potatoes.
Starches: Major polysaccharide in plants

Riboflavin or Vitamin B2

Riboflavin is also known as vitamin B2. The primary form of the vitamin is as an integral component of the coenzymes flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Through these two flavoco-enzymes, riboflavin functions as a catalyst for redox reactions in numerous metabolic pathways and in energy production.

Riboflavin was first documented in 1879 by Alexander Wynter Blyth as a yellow pigment found in milk and it was called lactochrome or vitamin G. This water-soluble B factor from milk was actually a combination of both thiamine (which is heat labile) and riboflavin (which is heat stable).

Food sources of riboflavin including: legumes (chick peas, lentils, red and black gram and soybean), meat (beef, mutton, chicken, and duck), fish and eggs. Fruits and vegetables are poor sources of riboflavin.

Riboflavin is important for the growth, development, and function of the cells in human body. It also helps turn the food into the energy in the body. Humans require dietary riboflavin for DNA repair, energy production, fatty acid and amino acid synthesis, folic acid activation, and production of glutathione which is a free radical scavenger.

Riboflavin deficiency results in the condition of hypo- or ariboflavinosis, with sore throat; hyperaemia; oedema of the pharyngeal and oral mucous membranes; cheilosis; angular stomatitis; glossitis; seborrheic dermatitis; and normochromic, normocytic bone marrow.
Riboflavin or Vitamin B2

Organic osmolytes of betaine

Betaine is a chemical that occurs naturally in the body and also distributed widely in animals, plants, and microorganisms, and rich dietary sources include seafood, especially marine invertebrates (≈1%); wheat germ or bran (≈1%); beets, wine, and spinach (0.7%).

Betaine (N,N,N-trimethylglycine, glycine betaine) is an organic nitrogenous compound, found for the first time in sugar beet juice.

It is classified as a methyl-ammonia due to three chemically-active methyl groups bound to the nitrogen atom of a glycine molecule, and it is considered the only readily active methyl-group donor.

Various analogues of glycine betaine exist in plants: proline betaine (stachydrine), trigonelline, arsenobetaine, betonicine, butirobetaine, ergothionine, propionobetaine, and sulfur analogues. The sulfur analogues are several in type: β-alaninebetaine, dimethylsulfonioacetate, andmdimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP).

The biosynthesis of betaine is made by the oxidation of choline in the cell mitochondrion. Choline and its derivatives serve as components of structural lipoproteins, blood and membrane lipids, and as a precursor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

The principal physiologic role of betaine is as an osmolyte and methyl donor (transmethylation). As such, it is indispensable to preserve the health of kidneys, liver, and heart. This compound has an important role in preventing and treating many chronic diseases, among which lowering of plasma homocysteine levels has gained the most attention.

High serum homocysteine levels have been associated with increased risk for cardiovascular diseases (stroke, heart attack, atherosclerosis), cancer, peripheral neuropathy, etc.

The osmoprotectant action of betaine ameliorates the effects of heat stress and of acid-base balance changes that may compromise physiological and metabolic functions, and consequently, broiler performance and feed efficiency.
Organic osmolytes of betaine

N-3 Fatty acids: DHA and EPA

N-3 fatty acids are essential for normal growth and development and may play an important role in the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and cancer. The multiple actions of n-3 fatty acids appear to involve multiple mechanisms that connect the cell membrane, the cytosol, and the nucleus.

α-linolenic acid (ALA) is the major n-3 fatty acid. α-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in humans and is an essential dietary fatty acid. In the body, α-linolenic acid is metabolized to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Linseeds (flaxseeds) and their oil typically contain 45–55% of fatty acids as a-linolenic acid, whereas soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and walnuts all typically contain ~10% of fatty acids as a-linolenic acid.

The omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3), are found in seafood (especially fatty fish), supplements and concentrated pharmaceutical preparations.

The blubber and tissues of sea mammals, such as whales and seals, also contain EPA and DHA in significant amounts.

In addition to providing people with high-quality proteins, fish consumption satisfies nutritional requirements for essential n-3 fatty acids, primarily eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic (DHA; 22:6 n-3) acids, which are two long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) mainly present in fish.

Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) (22:5n-3), a long-chain n-3 PUFA metabolite of EPA, is also present in smaller amounts in fish.

Fish oil is obtained from oily fish flesh or lean fish livers (e.g., cod liver). Fish oil is rich in very long-chain (n-3) fatty acids and in a typical fish oil, EPA and DHA comprise ;30% of the fatty acids present.

EPA and DHA are essential for proper fetal development and healthy aging. EPA emerging as a new potential agent in the treatment of depression. EPA can reduce symptoms of depression and help fight inflammation in human body.

DHA is essential for normal fetal brain and cognitive development as the formation of neuron synapses in the brain depends strongly on the integration of this fatty acid into growing neurons. DHA is a key component of all cell membranes and is found in abundance in the brain and retina.

Increasing n-3 fatty acids intake significantly reduces the incidence of cardiovascular disease. They reduce total cholesterol, and thus minimize significantly the risk of myocardial infarction.

The potential for EPA and DHA to have a role in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease was first identified by studies in the Greenland Inuit, where the low rate of mortality from myocardial infarction and ischaemic heart disease.
N-3 Fatty acids: DHA and EPA

A-type pro-anthocyanidins

Pro-anthocyanidins, also called condensed tannins, are oligomers and polymers of monomeric flavonoids. Pro-anthocyanidins are present in flowers, nuts, fruits, bark, and seeds of various plants, as a defense against biotic and abiotic stressors.

Pro-anthocyanidins can be differentiated into B-type or A-type depending on their interflavanic linkages.

A-type pro-anthocyanidins containing double interflavanyl linkages (for example, procyanidin A2: epicatechin (2b→7,4b→8)-epicatechin) compared to B-type pro-anthocyanidins that have a single interflavanyl bond, typically between C4→C8 (for example procyanidin B2: epicatechin–(4b→8)-epicatechin.

The most common A-type compounds are A1 and A2. A-type pro-anthocyanidins were found in only three fruits (cranberry, avocado and plum), one nut (peanut), and two spices (cinnamon and curry).

Study shows that cinnamon, which contains a series of unique trimeric and tetrameric procyanidins with A-type linkages, significantly decreased plasma levels of triglycerides and total and LDL cholesterol, when administered (1–6 g=day) just for 20 days.

Pro-anthocyanidins found in cranberry juice with A-type linkages prevented adhesion of uropathogenic P-fimbriated E. coli suggesting they may help to maintain a healthy urinary tract.
A-type pro-anthocyanidins