Fats: Essential Nutrients for a Balanced Diet

Fats and fat products are indispensable components of a balanced diet, serving as a primary source of energy and essential nutrients. Each gram of fat provides 9 calories, more than twice the energy offered by carbohydrates and proteins, making fats critical for meeting the body’s energy demands. Beyond energy, fats enable the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins—A, D, E, and K—which are essential for vision, bone health, immune function, and cellular protection.

Types of Fats and Their Nutritional Implications

Fats are categorized into three main types, each with distinct effects on health:

1. Saturated Fats
   Saturated fats are predominantly found in animal-based products such as butter, cheese, and fatty meats, as well as tropical oils like coconut and palm oil. While they contribute to energy needs, excessive intake can raise low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Experts recommend limiting saturated fat consumption to less than 10% of daily caloric intake.

2. Unsaturated Fats
   Unsaturated fats are considered heart-healthy and are classified into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats, abundant in avocados, olive oil, and nuts, help lower LDL cholesterol and boost high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fats, including omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids found in fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts, are critical for brain health and reducing inflammation. Regular consumption of unsaturated fats is linked to a lower risk of heart disease and improved overall health.

3. Trans Fats
   Trans fats, artificially created through hydrogenation to increase shelf life, are the most harmful type of fat. Found in processed snacks, baked goods, and margarine, trans fats elevate LDL cholesterol while decreasing HDL cholesterol, sharply raising the risk of heart disease. Many countries have taken steps to eliminate trans fats from the food supply, recognizing their detrimental health effects.

Striking a Balance for Optimal Health

The key to incorporating fats into a healthy diet lies in moderation and quality. Prioritizing unsaturated fats while limiting saturated fats and avoiding trans fats can support heart health, energy levels, and overall well-being. As dietary guidelines evolve, the focus remains on balancing fat intake with other macronutrients and consuming whole, minimally processed foods. Understanding the role and types of fats empowers individuals to make informed dietary choices for long-term health.
Fats: Essential Nutrients for a Balanced Diet

The Vital Importance of Nutrition for Health and Wellness

Nutrition is the science of understanding how food and drink impact the human body, focusing on the essential nutrients necessary to maintain health. It explores how the body processes nutrients, the role of diet in preventing and managing diseases, and the relationship between dietary choices and overall well-being. Proper nutrition provides the energy and building blocks needed for growth, repair, and sustaining bodily functions.

A balanced diet, incorporating carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals, is essential for the body’s optimal performance. Carbohydrates and fats serve as primary energy sources, fueling daily activities and metabolic processes. Proteins are indispensable for growth, tissue repair, and enzymatic functions. Vitamins such as A, C, and D play roles in immune support, skin health, and calcium absorption, respectively, while minerals like iron and zinc are vital for oxygen transport and cellular repair. Fiber, often overlooked, supports digestive health and regulates blood sugar levels.

The impact of good nutrition extends beyond physical health. Consuming a nutrient-rich diet helps prevent chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity—conditions often linked to poor dietary habits. For instance, diets high in processed sugars and trans fats are associated with inflammation and metabolic disorders. Conversely, whole foods like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains contribute to reduced risks of these conditions.

Mental health also benefits significantly from proper nutrition. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fish and flaxseeds, support brain health, while antioxidants in colorful fruits and vegetables combat oxidative stress that may contribute to anxiety and depression. Studies have shown that the Mediterranean diet, rich in healthy fats and plant-based foods, can enhance cognitive function and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s.

Nutrition also plays a key role in promoting longevity and improving quality of life. Balanced diets contribute to better immune function, faster recovery from illness, and sustained energy levels. In children and adolescents, proper nutrition supports development, while in older adults, it helps maintain mobility and independence.

In conclusion, nutrition is integral to health, affecting physical vitality, disease prevention, and mental well-being. By prioritizing a balanced and nutrient-rich diet, individuals can unlock a healthier, more fulfilling life.
The Vital Importance of Nutrition for Health and Wellness

Understanding the Food Insulin Index: A Guide to Healthier Insulin Responses

The Food Insulin Index (FII) is a measure that quantifies the insulin response to different foods, indicating how much they raise insulin levels within two hours of consumption. This measure offers an alternative to the Glycemic Index (GI), which only tracks the impact of foods on blood glucose levels. Unlike the GI, the FII specifically focuses on insulin response, providing a more nuanced understanding of how foods affect hormonal secretion and energy storage, which can have a profound impact on metabolic health.

Foods with a high insulin index, such as refined carbohydrates like white bread, sugary beverages, and processed snacks, cause a rapid increase in insulin levels due to their quick absorption into the bloodstream. This rapid insulin spike can contribute to fluctuations in blood sugar, increased fat storage, and, over time, the development of insulin resistance if consumed in excess. By contrast, foods with a low insulin index—like lean meats, leafy greens, and many dairy products—cause a more gradual and moderate insulin response. These foods are digested more slowly, helping to sustain energy levels and avoid dramatic insulin spikes.

Understanding the insulin index is especially important for managing conditions such as insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. These conditions are often linked to excessive insulin production, and consuming foods with a lower insulin index can be a strategic approach to better blood sugar control. By selecting foods with a lower insulin response, individuals may reduce the likelihood of blood sugar spikes and subsequent insulin surges, which can help in managing weight and reducing the risk of cardiovascular issues. Additionally, for athletes and those focused on optimized energy levels, the FII can guide dietary choices that support sustained energy without triggering excessive insulin release, thus avoiding energy crashes.

In summary, the Food Insulin Index offers valuable insights into dietary impact on insulin release, aiding individuals in making more informed choices to support metabolic health, weight management, and consistent energy levels.
Understanding the Food Insulin Index: A Guide to Healthier Insulin Responses

The Essential Role of Carbohydrates in Health and Energy

Carbohydrates are crucial for maintaining overall health as they serve as the body’s primary source of energy. When consumed, carbohydrates undergo digestion where they are broken down into glucose, a simple sugar. This glucose is then absorbed into the bloodstream and delivered to cells throughout the body. Within cells, glucose is utilized to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respiration. ATP is often referred to as the energy currency of cells because it provides the energy necessary for various cellular processes and functions.

In addition to providing immediate energy, carbohydrates play a significant role in energy storage. When glucose levels exceed immediate energy needs, excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored primarily in the liver and muscles. This stored glycogen serves as a readily accessible reserve that can be quickly mobilized to maintain stable blood sugar levels between meals and during periods of physical exertion. This is particularly important for sustaining energy levels during prolonged or intense physical activities.

Carbohydrates also have a vital role in brain function. The brain relies heavily on glucose as its primary source of energy. A consistent and adequate supply of glucose is essential for cognitive processes such as thinking, learning, and memory. Without sufficient carbohydrates, cognitive performance can decline, highlighting the importance of including adequate carbohydrates in the diet for mental clarity and function.

Additionally, carbohydrates contribute to muscle preservation by preventing the breakdown of proteins for energy. This is particularly important during periods of intense physical activity or calorie restriction, as it helps maintain muscle mass and overall strength.

Moreover, dietary fiber, a type of carbohydrate found in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, is integral to digestive health. Fiber promotes regular bowel movements, reducing the risk of constipation, and supports cardiovascular health by helping to lower cholesterol levels.

In summary, carbohydrates are essential not only for energy production and storage but also for brain function, muscle preservation, and digestive health. A balanced diet that includes an appropriate amount of carbohydrates is crucial for maintaining overall well-being and optimal health.
The Essential Role of Carbohydrates in Health and Energy

Adulteration in Food Commodities: A Persistent Public Health Concern

Food commodities have always been vulnerable to fraudulent admixture or adulteration with cheaper, inferior materials. Such practices are often revealed when food materials are transported from the countryside to urban centers, where quality control measures are more stringent. Adulteration involves lowering the quality of food by adding cheap and inferior substances to it or by removing essential components. Additionally, it includes the presence of harmful substances in the food.

According to the 1938 Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, food must not contain any added poisonous or deleterious substances that may render it injurious to health unless the added substance is required or cannot be avoided by good manufacturing practice, and a safe level has been established. Any food that does not meet these conditions is considered adulterated. For instance, the presence of harmful substances such as pesticides beyond permissible levels or the inclusion of non-food substances like melamine in dairy products would render the food adulterated.

Recent incidents underscore the ongoing relevance of this issue. In 2023, reports surfaced of honey being diluted with sugar syrups in several countries, compromising its purity and nutritional value. Similarly, there have been cases of olive oil being mixed with cheaper oils to reduce costs, deceiving consumers and posing potential health risks.

Adulteration is not only a breach of consumer trust but also a significant public health concern. Ensuring the integrity of food commodities requires robust regulatory frameworks, vigilant enforcement, and public awareness to protect consumers from the dangers of adulterated food.
Adulteration in Food Commodities: A Persistent Public Health Concern

The Vital Role of Calcium in Health

Calcium is essential for building and maintaining healthy bones and tooth structure, and it plays a critical role in the function of nerves and muscles. The human skeleton contains 99% of the body’s calcium in two major types of bone: trabecular bone, found in the vertebrae, and denser cortical bone. This stored calcium is crucial for maintaining bone strength and density. However, calcium is also withdrawn from bones to maintain homeostasis, ensuring that adequate levels are present in the bloodstream for various physiological functions.

Beyond its structural role, calcium is necessary for blood clotting and the proper function of the heart, nerves, and muscles. A deficiency in calcium can lead to weak, flaccid muscles and an increased risk of osteoporosis and fractures. It is, therefore, important to ensure adequate calcium intake through diet.

Dairy products like milk and cheeses, as well as sardines and canned salmon, are particularly rich sources of calcium. Incorporating calcium into your daily diet can be simple: try adding raisins to your cereal in the morning for a calcium-rich boost, or enjoy low-fat yogurt at lunch or as a mid-day snack. These small dietary changes can significantly contribute to maintaining optimal calcium levels and overall health.
The Vital Role of Calcium in Health

The Essential Role of Potassium in Maintaining Health

Potassium is an essential mineral for the body, crucial for maintaining numerous physiological functions. It plays a vital role in the proper functioning of nerves, muscles, and the heart, and is integral in the transport of nutrients and waste products across cell membranes. Predominantly found within body cells, potassium is critical for muscle and nerve function and the metabolism of carbohydrates. It helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, ensuring cell integrity and proper physiological function.

Potassium deficiency, though rare, can occur, particularly in cases of prolonged diarrhea or other health conditions. Symptoms of potassium deficiency include elevated blood pressure, increased salt sensitivity, kidney stones, and heightened bone turnover. These symptoms highlight the importance of maintaining adequate potassium levels for overall health.

Dietary sources of potassium are plentiful, particularly in fruits and vegetables. Common potassium-rich foods include bananas, oranges, potatoes, spinach, and tomatoes. Additionally, legumes, fish, and dairy products also contribute significantly to dietary potassium intake. In the United States, top sources of potassium for adults include milk, coffee, tea, nonalcoholic beverages, and potatoes. For children, milk, fruit juice, potatoes, and fruit are primary sources.

Ensuring sufficient potassium intake is essential for maintaining health, particularly in preventing hypertension and supporting bone health. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend consuming a balanced diet rich in potassium-containing foods to support overall well-being. By including a variety of fruits, vegetables, and other potassium-rich foods in daily meals, individuals can help ensure they meet their nutritional needs and support their body's vital functions.
The Essential Role of Potassium in Maintaining Health

Food Science: Key to Health

Since ancient times, humans have recognized the connection between nutrition and overall well-being, leading to the evolution of diverse diets aimed at enhancing physical and mental performance. However, the analysis and planning of diets remained impractical until the emergence of food science.

Originating from chemistry, microbiology, and medicine, food science has evolved into an interdisciplinary field encompassing biochemistry, nutrition, toxicology, mathematics, physics, engineering, psychology, genetics, biotechnology, and law. This interdisciplinary approach is crucial because individuals consume whole foods rather than isolated nutrients, underscoring the importance of a comprehensive understanding of food science in assessing the dietary impact on health.

The development of food science has facilitated the categorization of foods into nutritional groups, each representing vital components essential for optimal health. This classification has enabled the identification of associations between diets and health outcomes, paving the way for corrective and preventive dietary interventions in medicine.

Effective collaboration between food scientists and nutritionists is essential for establishing standards regarding optimal nutritional content and comprehending the influence of food processing and storage on nutrient bioavailability. For example, the introduction of ascorbic acid can enhance iron absorption in the diet.

Continual advancements in biotechnology, genetic engineering, computer technology, microbiology, and chemistry drive the evolution of food science, allowing it to adapt to current and projected health and safety trends. This integration of scientific progress enables the development of novel foods tailored to meet consumer preferences, including convenient options, low-calorie alternatives, and rapid detection methods for harmful microbes.

Looking ahead, food science will maintain its pivotal role in shaping the global food supply and enhancing the health and quality of life of individuals worldwide. Through the application of scientific innovations, food scientists can address pressing challenges related to food security, sustainability, and public health, ensuring a brighter and healthier future for generations to come.
Food Science: Key to Health

Crocin in saffron

Saffron contains carotenoid pigments called crocin, bicrocin, and tricrocin, as well as a bitter glycoside known as picrocrocin, and a volatile, aromatic substance called safranal. The primary compounds responsible for the color in both saffron and gardenia are the crocins, which comprise a series of polyene dicarboxylic acid, mono, and di-glucosyl esters of crocetin.

Crocin, a major carotenoid and pharmacologically active component found in saffron, exhibits a deep red hue and forms crystals with a melting point of 186 °C when isolated in its pure chemical form. In water, it dissolves to create an orange solution.

These compounds possess numerous therapeutic properties within saffron. Crocin demonstrates both acute and chronic anti-inflammatory effects and provides various therapeutic benefits for nervous system disorders, acting as an antidementia agent, antidepressant, anxiolytic, and aphrodisiac. Furthermore, it showcases antioxidant, cardioprotective, and antitumor properties.
Crocin in saffron

Ellagic acid –fruits and vegetables polyphenol

Ellagic acid is a molecule with a molecular weight of 302 gmol-1 . It is a molecule that is highly thermostable (melting point of 350°C).

Ellagic acid is a naturally occurring polyphenol found in some fruits and nuts including blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, cranberries, walnuts, pecans, pomegranates, wolfberry, and other plant foods, is one of the well-studied phytochemicals. It’s also in red wine, grape juice, and green tea.

In particular, berries provide ellagic acid in the form of ellagitannins, which constitute ∼60% (red raspberry) to 80% (cloudberry) of the total phenolic compounds present. There is emerging evidence that ellagic acid may decrease symptoms of chronic metabolic diseases, including dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Ellagic acid also possesses antioxidant, antimutagenic, and anticancer properties.

Ellagic acid reduces systolic blood pressure, through upregulating the endothelial nitric oxide synthase; this effect increases the bioavailability of nitric oxide, a decrease associated with endothelial dysfunction and an increase of blood pressure.

Due to a wide range of biological effects of ellagic acid, edible plants containing this phytochemical and its hydrolysable derivatives, mainly ellagitannins, are a valuable source of ellagic acid for humans and belong to functional foods that promote health and may reduce the risk of disease.
Ellagic acid –fruits and vegetables polyphenol

N-3 Fatty acids: DHA and EPA

N-3 fatty acids are essential for normal growth and development and may play an important role in the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, other inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and cancer. The multiple actions of n-3 fatty acids appear to involve multiple mechanisms that connect the cell membrane, the cytosol, and the nucleus.

α-linolenic acid (ALA) is the major n-3 fatty acid. α-linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in humans and is an essential dietary fatty acid. In the body, α-linolenic acid is metabolized to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).

Linseeds (flaxseeds) and their oil typically contain 45–55% of fatty acids as a-linolenic acid, whereas soybean oil, rapeseed oil, and walnuts all typically contain ~10% of fatty acids as a-linolenic acid.

The omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6 n-3), are found in seafood (especially fatty fish), supplements and concentrated pharmaceutical preparations.

The blubber and tissues of sea mammals, such as whales and seals, also contain EPA and DHA in significant amounts.

In addition to providing people with high-quality proteins, fish consumption satisfies nutritional requirements for essential n-3 fatty acids, primarily eicosapentaenoic (EPA; 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic (DHA; 22:6 n-3) acids, which are two long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) mainly present in fish.

Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) (22:5n-3), a long-chain n-3 PUFA metabolite of EPA, is also present in smaller amounts in fish.

Fish oil is obtained from oily fish flesh or lean fish livers (e.g., cod liver). Fish oil is rich in very long-chain (n-3) fatty acids and in a typical fish oil, EPA and DHA comprise ;30% of the fatty acids present.

EPA and DHA are essential for proper fetal development and healthy aging. EPA emerging as a new potential agent in the treatment of depression. EPA can reduce symptoms of depression and help fight inflammation in human body.

DHA is essential for normal fetal brain and cognitive development as the formation of neuron synapses in the brain depends strongly on the integration of this fatty acid into growing neurons. DHA is a key component of all cell membranes and is found in abundance in the brain and retina.

Increasing n-3 fatty acids intake significantly reduces the incidence of cardiovascular disease. They reduce total cholesterol, and thus minimize significantly the risk of myocardial infarction.

The potential for EPA and DHA to have a role in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease was first identified by studies in the Greenland Inuit, where the low rate of mortality from myocardial infarction and ischaemic heart disease.
N-3 Fatty acids: DHA and EPA

Ghee Oil: Fat Content

Ghee has been produced by clarification of milk fat from milk, cream or butter at high temperature with or without fermentation. It is almost anhydrous milk fat.

Ghee is popular in India has got typical pleasing and appetizing aroma. It contributes color and flavor richness to foods and at the same time promotes good health. Clarified ghee contains not less than 99.5 % fat and fat is the most valued milk component. Ghee is one of the most widely used milk products in numerous foods for various purposes and considered as the supreme cooking and frying medium.

Ghee is believed to be coolant, capable of increasing mental power and in pure form is used to feed children because of its therapeutic value, and is mixed with honey and used as an aphrodisiac. The oil is considered to be fairly stable due to the low water content as well as high antioxidative properties. It is also rich in CLA (conjugated linoleic acid), which shows anticarcinogenic effects.

Ghee oil is a complex lipid of glycerides (usually mixed), free fatty acids, phospholipids, sterols, sterol esters, fat soluble vitamins, carbonyls, hydrocarbons, carotenoids, small amounts of charred casein and traces of calcium, phosphorus, iron, etc. It also contains not more than 0.3% moisture.

Glycerides contribute about 98% of the total material while the remaining constituents are sterols (mostly cholesterol) occur to the extent of about 0.5%.
Ghee Oil: Fat Content

Flavonoid of naringin

The flavonoid naringin occurs naturally in citrus fruits, especially in grapefruit. Naringin and its aglycone naringenin belong to this series of flavonoids and were found to possess strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities both in vitro and in vivo. Several lines of investigation suggest that naringin supplementation is beneficial for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome.

Naringin has been shown to inhibit cell proliferation and to promote cell apoptosis in tumour cells, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells, human cervical cancer (SiHa) cells and bladder cancer cells. In TNBC cells, the pro-apoptotic activity of naringin results from G1-phase cell cycle arrest. Suppression of the growth of breast cancer cells by naringin is mediated by inhibition of the β-catenin pathway, leading to a significantly increased p21 level and decreased cell survival.

Naringin the 7-, β -neohesperidoside of naringenin (with the molecular formula C27H32O14 and a molecular weight of 580.4 g/mol) is a flavanone glycoside possesses the distinct bitter taste of grapefruit juice.

It has antioxidant potential and plays an important role in the development of leaves, flowers, buds and fruits of plants. It has further induced bitterness to the fruits as in grape fruit. However, the bitterness can be reduced upon reduction by the enzyme naringinase.

The skin of pummelo contained a higher amount of naringin (3910 μg/g fresh weight) than the juice (220·0 μg/g fresh weight) whereas the amounts of naringin obtained from the skin, juice and seed of rough lime were 517·2 μg/g, 98·4 μg/g and 29·2 μg/g fresh weight, respectively.

Naringin is less potent compared with naringenin because the sugar moiety in the former causes steric hindrance of the scavenging group. Naringin is moderately soluble in water. The gut microflora breaks down naringin to its aglycon naringenin in the intestine; it is then absorbed from the gut.

Three steps are needed to isolate naringin from fruits: extraction, separation and purification. The naringin content in fruit depends on a number of factors the time of fruit collection, the part of the fruit used and if the peel is the source of naringin, the drying time.
Flavonoid of naringin

Capsaicin in chili pepper

Chilies are the berries of the genus Capsicum (family: Solanaceae) and they are used variously as a pungent flavor in food, natural plant colour, pharmaceutical ingredient and as sprays for riot control and self-defense.

Chilies have a hot taste. This comes from capsaicinoid compounds that are amide acids from vanilinamine and fatty acid chain branched at C9 and C11. Capsaicinoid consists of capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydro-capsaicin. 69% of Capsaicinoid is capsaicin, which is a marker compound and has an affect on stimulating hair growth.

Capsaicin is a compound found in chili p fruit and responsible for their burning and irritant effect. Capsaicin is lead in bitterness chili fruit, thus red chili more hot taste than green chili, because the content of capsaicin of red chili two or three fold more than green chili fruits.

Capsaicin was first purified in 1876 but its structure started to be described only in 1919. Capsaicin presents a nonpolar phenolic structure and thus cannot be solubilized in water. The main solvents used to extract and maintain capsaicin properties are nonpolar solvents such as ether, benzene, dimethyl sulfoxide and acetone, but ethanol can also be used as a solvent due to its mixed properties.

Capsaicin is also the active principle which accounts for the pharmaceutical properties of chilies. It has been used as a topical analgesic against arthritis pain and inflammation. Capsaicin binds to the same group of nociceptors which also leads to the sensation of pain from heat and acid. It has also been reported to show anticancer effect.

Capsaicin has also been reported to show protective effects against high cholesterol levels and obesity. Capsaicin and other members of the capsaicinoids group produce a large number of physiological and pharmacological effects on the gastrointestinal tract, the cardiovascular and respiratory system as well as the sensory and thermoregulation systems.

Capsaicin in chili pepper

What is resveratrol?

Resveratrol is an antioxidant. It was first identified in 1940 in the roots of hellebore. Resveratrol is found in more than seventy plants species, primarily in peanuts, blueberries, dark chocolate and other products.

Resveratrol is also widely known as a component of wine, particularly red wine. Resveratrol occurs naturally in two forms: cis-resveratrol and trans-resveratrol. Trans-resveratrol is much more bioactive and clinically beneficial than cis-resveratrol.

Resveratrol has an anticoagulant effect that prevents the formation of blood clots that may block blood vessel and cause heart attacks and stroke. In 1997 research showed that resveratrol exits anticancer effects by reducing tumor mass in rats. Scientists demonstrated that resveratrol is effective in blocking in vivo the three stages of: carcinogenesis, initiation, promotion and progression.

Resveratrol may help prevent age-related disorders such as neurodegenerative disease, inflammation, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
What is resveratrol?

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant kingdom and belong to the family of compounds known as flavonoids that are synthesized by plants as part of their secondary metabolism. Based on their chemical characteristics, flavonoids are divided into different subclasses: flavonols, flavanols, anthocyanidins, flavanones, flavones and isoflavones.

Anthocyanins are colored water-soluble pigments belonging to the phenolic group. They occur primarily as glycosides or acylglycosides of their respective aglycone anthocyanidins. These pigments, naturally present in fruits and vegetables, provide color and promote health benefits to consumers due to their antioxidant capacity.

The different anthocyanin conjugates absorb light at about 500 nm and are responsible for the red, blue and purple color of fruits and vegetables.

Among the anthocyanin pigments, cyanidin-3-glucoside is the major anthocyanin found in most of the plants. The colored anthocyanin pigments have been traditionally used as a natural food colorant. The color and stability of these pigments are influenced by pH, light, temperature, and structure.

Anthocyanins have important functions in plant physiology. They are believed to play a major role in both pollination and seed dispersal. Anthocyanins have been shown to be strong antioxidants and may exert a wide range of health benefits through antioxidant or other mechanisms. Several studies have shown that anthocyanins display a wide range of biological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anti-carcinogenic activities.
Anthocyanins

Proanthocyanidins in blueberries

Proanthocyanidins, also known condensed tannins, are comprised of oligomeric and polymers flavno3-ols.

Blueberries like other highly colored berries (e.g., cranberries, bilberries, blackberries, strawberries, cherries, raspberries, mulberries, and boysenberries, as well as red grapes) contain flavonoids called proanthocyanidins, potent antioxidants named for their blue or cyan colors.

The two major classes of proanthocyanidins found in berry fruit include procyanidins, composed exclusively of epi (catechin) units, and propelargonidins, composed exclusively of (epi) afzelechin units. Berry fruits vary markedly in proanthocyanidin composition and content.

The total proanthocyanidin content of highbush blueberries, lowbush blueberries, blackberries, Marion berries, raspberries, and strawberries is 180, 332, 27, 9, 30, and 145 mg/100 g FW.

The free-radical scavenging properties of proanthocyanidins, including their potential for risk reduction of cardiovascular diseases, cancer, blood clotting, and protection against urinary tract infection, have been under investigation by scientists.

Studies show that blueberry proanthocyanidins have grater antioxidant properties than the much-vaunted vitamins E and C.

The presence of these plant antioxidants helps the body maintain higher levels of the antioxidant vitamins and allows the vitamins to participate in their normal roles rather than neutralizing free radicals.
Proanthocyanidins in blueberries

Phenolic compounds

Phenolic compounds are secondary metabolites that are quite widespread in nature. Phenolics are widely distributed in plants, spices, vegetables, fruits, whole grains, green and black teas, coffee, fruit juices, olive oil, red and white wines and chocolates.

They play several physiological roles in plants were they occur, but many of them are also favorable to human health because of their antioxidant activity.

They are compounds that have one or more hydroxyl groups attached directly to an aromatic ring. Phenol is the structure upon which the entire group is based.

Phenolics can exhibit simple structures such as arbutin or complex ones such as those characteristics of the tannin class.

Ribereau-Gayon in 1972 grouped the phenols into three families as follows:
*Widely distributed phenols – ubiquitous to all plants, or of importance in a specific plant
*Phenols that are less widely distributed – limited number of compounds known
*Phenolic constituents present as polymers

Phenolics compounds have been reported to have multiple biological effects, including antioxidant activity, to prevent heart disease, reduce inflammation, lower the incidence of cancers and diabetes, as well as to reduce rates of mutagenesis in human cells.
Phenolic compounds

Lycopene in food and its health benefits

Lycopene is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of all dicyclic carotenoids, including β–carotene.

It is estimated that more than 80% of lycopene consumed in the United States is derived from tomato-base products, although apricot, guava, watermelon, papaya and pink grapefruit also provided a dietary source.

Lycopene appears to be relatively stable during cooking and food processing. Lycopene is responsible for the characteristics red color of tomatoes and tomato-based foods. In the reddest strains of tomatoes, lycopene concentration is close to 50 mg/kg, compared with only 5 mg/kg in the yellow strains.

Lycopene may play an important protective role against coronary heart disease. In one study, 19 young men followed a diet based on tomato products and experience a significant increase in blood lycopene level together with a reduction in circulating level of LDL-cholesterol.

Lycopene is a more potent scavenger of oxygen radicals than other major dietary carotenes, and it exerts additional anticancer effects. In one –six-year study men who ate two or more servings of tomato products a week reduced their risk of prostate cancer by up to 50 percent.
Lycopene in food and its health benefits

Phenolic compound in olive oils

Phenolic compounds are often described as effective antioxidants. These compounds have a great importance for several characteristics of the olive oil, such as flavor, shelf-life and resistance against oxidation.

The class of phenols present in olive oils encompasses a large number of different substances such as vanillic acid, caffeic acid, hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein, ligstroside, gallic acid, coumaric acid and flavonoids. In olive oils the bitter taste is due to phenolic compounds and cinnamic acid, while the pungency is due to oleuropein.

The amount of phenolic compounds in olive oils cultivars varies from 150 to 700 ppm and is affected by various factors such as cultivar, degree of maturation, climatic conditions and pest damage to fruit. Green olives oil in phenolic content and with a more aromatic and fruity flavor.

Oleuropein is the major phenolic in olive fruits. Oleuropein underwent significant changes in its concentration during fruit development.

Oleuropein has been shown to be responsible for the high resistance, robustness and good immune function of the olive tree. In it original, unaltered form, this substance lowers, blood pressure, dilates blood vessels, and protects against heart rhythm disturbances.
Phenolic compound in olive oils